by Stephen J. A. Ward
This section provides an overview of ethics in general, and journalism
ethics. It identifies the major approaches to ethics and models of
ethical reasoning, before explaining the nature of journalism ethics.
The aim is to orient readers who are not familiar with the study of
ethics.
Nature of ethics The word “ethics” is connected
intrinsically with questions of correct conduct within society. Etymologically,
“ethics” comes from the Greek “ethos” meaning
“character” which indicates a concern for virtuous people,
reliable character and proper conduct. “Morality” is derives
from “mores” or custom -- the rules of conduct of a group
or society. An initial definition of ethics, then, is the analysis,
evaluation, and promotion of correct conduct and/or good character,
according to the best available standards.
Ethics asks what we should do in some circumstance, or what we should
do as participants in some form of activity or profession. Ethics
is not limited to the acts of a single person. Ethics is also interested
in the correct practices of governments, corporations, professionals
and many other groups. To these questions, ethics seeks a reasoned,
principled, position. An appeal to existing practice or the command
of a powerful leader is not sufficient. To answer such questions in
a consistent, reasoned manner may take us far a-field. Some ethical
questions will require reflection on our basic values and the purpose
of human society.
Ethics is best conceived of as something we “do,” a form
of on-going inquiry into practical problems. Ethics is the difficult
practical task of applying norms and standards to ever new and changing
circumstances. Ethics arises most typically in cases where there is
genuine puzzlement about what should be done in types of situations.
There is usually some practical importance or urgency to such questions.
Is it ethical for journalists to reveal their sources to the courts,
despite their promises of confidentiality? Is it ethical of journalists
to invade the privacy of politicians to investigate allegations of
mis-behaviour? One inquires ethically because one is puzzled
about how existing principles might apply in a concrete situation.
Ethical inquiry exists because tensions inevitably arise over what
constitutes correct conduct or fair practice when humans live and
work together. Disagreements arise not only over specific practices,
but also over the interpretation of principles.
Ethics is sometimes identified with an inflexible set of rules and
self-righteous moralizing. Rules say an action is either right or
wrong. This over-simplifies ethics. Ethical thinking requires the
guidance of principles but it should not be shackled to them. Instead,
we should evaluate principles according to whether they are useful
in dealing with ethical concerns. Principles, and their interpretation
change over time. No principle can anticipate all possible situations,
and principles may conflict. Ethics should focus on how people interpret,
apply, balance and modify their principles in light of new facts,
new technology, new social attitudes and changing economic and political
conditions.
Ethics is not static. Ethics consists of dynamic frameworks of principles
and values. Our ethical values reflect our deepest convictions and
attachments. They define who we are, and give us an ethical “identity.”
Ethics is the process of inventing new and better ethical responses
to problems and conflicts. This process is driven not only by social
change but also by our “ethical imagination” which continually
pushes on existing boundaries. For example, most recently such imaginative
proposals include the advocacy of same-sex marriage and the idea that
animals have “rights.”
Range of ethics Ethical inquiry covers a wide range of possible
subjects, such as:
• Personal ethics: e.g. questions about one's basic values
and plan of life
• Professional ethics: principles and practices of major
professions
• Social and political ethics: e.g., issues of social
justice, political rights
• Ethics of sexual and gender relations
• Research ethics in academia and the private sector
• Environmental ethics, including the ethical treatment
of animals
• Global ethics: ethics of international affairs, human
rights
• Communication ethics, including media, public relations
and journalism
Theoretical and applied ethics
Ethical inquiry can occur on many levels of thought, according to
one’s focus and interest. We can distinguish between two main
types of ethical inquiry:
Theoretical ethics: The study of the main concepts and methods of
ethics. Major questions at this level include the nature of ethical
language, the justification of ethical judgments and the nature of
ethical reasoning Ethical philosophy, for example, is the systematic
study of ethical experience and the justification of moral notions,
beginning with those that historically and by current estimation are
the most important.
Applied ethics: The application and evaluation of the principles and
norms that guide practice in particular domains. The focus is on issues
and problems specific to the field in question, through a combination
of theory and practice. Major questions at this level include how
certain principles apply to various practical problems, the ranking
of principles, the standards of “best practice” and ethical
decision-making in the field.The “theoretical-applied”
distinction is not absolute. It is a matter of emphasis and interest.
As practical, reasoned inquiry, ethics in any domain will include
both practical and theoretical considerations.
Professional ethics is a major division of applied ethics. It is the
application and evaluation of norms and practice in the various professions,
such as medicine, journalism, and law. Since the mid-1900s, many institutes,
centres and journals have been established to study and enhance nursing
ethics, business ethics, biomedical ethics, media ethics, the ethics
of government and corporate governance, the ethics of accountants
and so on.
Types of ethics
By focusing on a major aspect:
One way to approach ethics is to focus on one of four recurring aspects
of ethical situations: rights, goods, virtues and our communal relations
with others. Ethical inquiry into correct conduct involves (1) questions
about whether an action honours or violates anyone’s rights
or duties, (2) questions about the “goods” that should
be pursued, often thought of as the harmful or beneficial consequences
of action, (3) the impact of action on the “virtue” of
the actors -- their character and integrity, and (4) the impact of
action on our communal and “caring” relations with others.
Each of the four aspects grounds an approach to ethics:
1. Teleological or “goods-based” ethics: Ethics is primarily
about the aims or telosof actions -- the “goods” to be
pursued, including the impact of actions on individuals or groups.
Ethics systems in this tradition include “consequential”
theories that attempt to maximize valuable outcomes or “goods”
and minimize harms. One form of consequentialism is utilitarianism
where valuable outcomes are defined in terms of utility.
2. “Duty” or “de-ontological” ethics: Ethics
is primarily about the rights and duties of agents, which takes precedent
over individual feelings or inclinations, the wishes of the majority,
or utilitarian calculations about what would make most people happy.
Rights trump the pursuit of goods. There are fundamental principles
and duties that restrain self-interest. Ethical systems in this tradition
include the philosophy of Kant and John Rawls.
3. Virtue ethics: Ethics is primarily about developing a virtuous
person and citizen. Ethics is not primarily about formulating an unchanging
set of principles. It is about developing ethical character and the
practical wisdom to choose the right thing to do in complex situations.
Here, ethical education and development plays a central role. Ethical
thought in this tradition derives from the virtue ethics of Plato
and Aristotle, with its stress on achieving the good life, through
virtuous dispositions. Often, such thinking is “perfectionist”
by stressing that ethics should be guided by an ideal of human perfection
or the perfect society.
4. Ethics of care and community: Ethical deliberation should prioritize
the fostering of responsible, caring relationships among people –
relationships that honour their dignity, humanity and “connectedness.”
This approach is embodied in a “communitarian ethics”
that views values as embedded in community and shared practices. According
to this approach, too much of Western ethics has emphasized the rights
of atomized individuals while downplaying their duties. A primary
ethical imperative, then, is to build communities that enhance compassionate
and fulfilling relationships among its members. In journalism, this
“ethics of care” is expressed in several ways, including
the principle to “minimize” unnecessary harm to vulnerable
subjects of news stories. Advocates of an ethics of care tend to prefer
the “social responsibility theory” of the press over the
liberal theory of the press. See theories of the press below.
Please note: This division
is too simplistic. A full theory of ethics would have to make
room for all four aspects. Also, some ethical systems cut across
the categories. For example, Rawls’s theory of justice
stresses the priority of rights, yet he also shows how the pursuit
of goods is enhanced by a just social structure. Aristotle develops
an ethics of virtue, which is also a teleological theory about
how to achieve the supreme good of happiness. The value of this
rough categorization is that it draws attention to four aspects
of ethical thinking, and that some philosophers emphasize one
aspect more than others.
By focusing on the “source” of
ethical authority:
Even if we agree on the approach and the basic rules, we could disagree
on their ‘source” or justification of those rules. Therefore,
approaches to ethics can differ, as such:
• Authoritative, external, voices: Ethical rules valid if they
are the rules of a deity, inspired leader, a divine world order, tradition
or ancient ‘holy’ book. This tradition includes not only
religions but also philosophical appeals to divine law by Thomas Aquinas
and the appeal to a universal “natural law” by the Stoics
and John Locke.
• Naturalism: Ethical judgments are based on natural feelings,
conscience or reason within all humans -- not on supernatural authority.
Universal sentiments may include benevolence and sympathy, pleasure
or happiness. Or, universal principles may be recognized as the faculty
of reason. Naturalism includes justifications that are found in the
philosophical traditions of empiricism and rationalism, from John
Locke, David Hume and Adam Smith to Kant.• Social agreement,
or contract: The rational basis of ethical and political rules (and
arrangements) is a fair agreement among all interested parties. Historically,
this agreement has been interpreted as an implicit, or explicit, social
contract.
Ethical reasoning and decision-making
The web site for the Centre
for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia provides
a wide selection of links to models of ethical reasoning -- how to
make ethical decisions in general, and in specific professions. The
web site also provides links to a bibliography of books and articles
on ethical reasoning. See:
